THE FORMATION OF THE CANON

The Pali Canon. Pali language was perfected at the great Buddhist University Takshasila (present day Taxila in Pakistan), but survived only in Sri Lanka and the rest of S.E. Asia.

Suttas (Sutras) not compiled until 430, Abhidkamma (Abhidharma) was even later; so it was the Vinaya (monastic discipline) that was set in 480 at the First Council. Rules seem very strict (the Buddha was not as strict), but the punishment is mild compared to the times. No capital punishment (not even for murder), just expulsion from the Order. Discipline was, of course, less strict for lay Buddhists; the men could, for example, see prostitutes!

Vinaya is utterly free of irrational taboos: no foods are impure; bodily wastes are not spiritually polluting.

Republican form of self-government and due process of law. Punishment follow the Middle Way--between laxity and cruelty.

Buddha reluctantly admitted women to the Sangha, and only at the urging of Ananda. Added eight extra rules for them. Jainism and Buddhism were the leaders in officially allowing women a place in the monastic order. Buddhist nuns are still a struggling minority, but are especially strong in Tibet. It is especially tough for them in S.E. Asia and Sri Lanka. In the latter, over 3,000 are struggling for more support.

Mahayana's Dharma-kaya: in it "there is neither male nor female." Compare with Galatians 3:28. This declaration of equality, however, did not make either Mahayana Buddhism or Christianity more favorably disposed to women.

THE FIRST COUNCIL (483 or 480 BCE) 

Strong early documentation about the Council's historicity. The canon would have to have been made at one time or another. It did not come fulblown from the head of Minerva. Crucial questions of discipline would have forced an early meeting of monks.

Proof that accounts of the first Council was legendary are mainly indirect: that, for example, there is no mention of it in many accounts of the Buddha's death.

"Zen" response (Ikeda, 14) to Buddha's death? Mahasanghikas (proto-Mahayana) already? Mahakashyapa was shocked at this anarchic outburst. He chose the "select" 500 monks.

Ikeda, 17: All the sutras begin "Thus I have heard..." The "I" presumably is Ananda, because of his great powers of memory. Page 20 gives procedure.

If the sutras were done in 430, then Ananda would of course not have been present. Upali was chosen to set the discipline (vinaya), which may have been the only business of the Council.

Evidence of two sets of disciplines: one for the super ascetics like Kasyapa (Poussin, pp. 60-61). Robes of rags; no begging bowl, but only a mouthful of food; foot of a tree for a house; and decomposed urine for medicene. Vinaya as reformulated Hindu and Jain monasticism.

Ikeda, 23: Dissenters, even major disciples. Purna was one of them. And both Shariputra and Maudgalyayana predeceased the Buddha. They were the only ones allowed to preach the Dharma.

THE SECOND COUNCIL (370 BCE)

Critique from the Theravada "Elders" Stryk, 246-47.

Progressive monks in Vaisali--supported by rich lay Buddhists who wished more involvement in Buddhism.

Ikeda, 28: Proposed Ten New Permitted Actions among them: accepting gold and silver. Seven hundred Theravadin monks gathered to condemn the new precepts. Ten thousand Mahasanghikas (proto-Mahayanists) gathered to reaffirm their new liberal code. On this issue, the Buddha would most likely have sided with the liberals.

Confusion on discipline shows that there may have been no first council to codify it. But Vinaya allows money to be held by a layman and then things bought for the monk or monastic order with it. The law was simply that the monks were not to touch money, not that they could not use it in some way. The reforming monks at Vaisali made sure they did not touch the gold and silver they received. They set out huge copper bowls which they adorned with flowers and perfumes. Sort of a permanent offering bowl. Those who gave a lot would gain great merits.

There were also exceptions to not keeping provisions: medicenes, oil, honey, etc. The early rules were actually very flexible. Tibetan manuals allow salt to be kept in proper containers. But this is after the Second Council and is definitely Mahayana. Salt was seen as medicene. Can't use salt to keep food until the next day.

3rd new principe: to eat a second time before noon. Another: to eat after the noon hour. What comprises eating? Does a snack count?

Note: contrast to Christian councils. No debate about doctrine (abhidharma) like at Nicea (325 CE). Also codification of scripture came much later in Christianity. For example, the book of Revelation was finally included late the the 4th Century C.E

After the Second Council, eighteen sects soon sprang up. Twelve were Hinayana, one of them being Theravada; and six were Mahasanghika.

Ikeda, 35: But the sutras and Abhidharma for these groups were basically the same. The Mahayana sutras did not appear until several centuries later.

36: No violence or attempts at suppression by either group.

38: Those who met "outside the cave" in 483 or 480. Mahasanghika already at this time?

THE CASE OF ANANDA

(Following Louis de la Valee Poussin, The Buddhist Councils [Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co., 1976].)

Ananda was still under instruction. But when called upon to serve, his meditation was so pure that he did become an Arhat.

Ananda's calling by the Buddha: "Wherefore, Ananda, do you, to whom I have made known the truths that I have perceived, come together in company and rehearse all of you together those doctrines and quarrel not over them, but compare the meaning with meaning, phrase with phrase, in order that this true doctrine may last long and be perpetuated, in order that it may continue to be for the good and happiness of the great multitude, out of love for the world, to the good and gain and weal of gods aand men" (Kalup [1], p. 94).

Ananda's feats of memory: reciting 60,000 lines without missing a syllable.

Ananda's confession regarding the charge that he was soft on women: "I do not see the wrong in that. Nevertheless, out of deference to you, I confess this sin."

Trial brought about by jealousy among monks who saw that he had become the Buddha's favorite disciple.

In addition to the woman charge, he was charged with 1. not knowing of the lesser precepts, or having said that the Buddha said that they could be dropped; 2. Having stepped on the Buddha's robe; 3. Not having prayed that the Buddha prolong his life (he could have lived forever if he wanted); 4. For having allowed women to descrecate the body of the Buddha with their tears. And others; 5. Having exposed the private parts of the Buddha to women so that they might cease their sexual passion; 6. Having advised monks to eat together; 7. Having given the Buddha muddy water; 8. He was not totally freed from lust, hatred, and ignorance. (See Poussin, pp. 6-7)