R201 Glossary

R 201:EASTERN RELIGIONS Winter 1999 R201 GLOSSARY

GENERAL RELIGIOUS STUDIES TERMS

another world to live in: The imagined realm to which one has access through the system of symbols constituting a religious tradition by dwelling in them (= attending from them subsidiarily). It is the realm wherein one encounters or at least makes connection with what the tradition takes to be ultimate reality. It is the "inside" which qualifies insiders as "insiders."

at-onement: The state of being at-one with what is taken to be ultimate reality. It encompasses in its range of meaning "reconciled with," "in right or appropriate relation to," "in rapport with," "in agreement with," "in harmony with," "in conformity to," and "in union with"--with the understanding that the precise characterization of this state of at-onement will differ from one tradition to another.

bracketing: The separating of an empathetic description of a religious phenomenon from the speaker's or writer's own person -- putting it in neutral, as it were -- so that the phenomenon may be observed, understood, and appreciated for what it is on its own apart from whatever the personal position of the speaker or writer may be on the subject. Instead of directly giving expression to the convictions of the participant, bracketing defers to the participant as holding those convictions. E.g., instead of saying, "In the Roman Catholic Mass the bread and wine sacramentally become the body and blood of Christ," bracketing would say, "In the Mass, Roman Catholics believe that the bread and wine sacramentally become the body and blood of Christ."

central (or primary) story: One of the most important parts of the system of symbols making up a religious tradition, the most important story of all the stories that are told and typically the one in relation to which all other stories, beliefs, symbols, and practices take on the meaning they characteristically have in that tradition. To convey most essentially the core meaning of what a given religion is all about, a story will be told and usually it will be the same story or variations on the same story, regardless of the context. Usually it is the story of the founding or establishment of the tradition.

crossing the threshold: The action of entering into (coming to dwell within) the system of symbols of a religious tradition and thus the "other world" of a tradition -- i.e., becoming an insider. Adult converts cross a threshold self-consciously, while persons growing up within a tradition do so gradually and typically unselfconsciously. Adult insiders typically, however, recross the threshold again and again, whenever they engage in religious practice and renew their understanding of things from within the tradition. Empathetically objective understanding by outsiders of a tradition requires a crossing of the threshold in an act of empathetic imagination.

Eastern religions: The family of the great religious traditions which emerged in the Far East, primarily the religions originating in India (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism) and China (Taoism, Confucianism), though it includes more than these.

empathetic objectivity: An objectivity appropriate to the study of human subjects and cultural phenomena such as religion. Specifically, it involves the effort to take into account and do full justice to the understanding and experience of the insider in developing a full or rounded understanding of the object of investigation. A disciplined empathy is thus an essential part of what is involved.

empathy: An act of imaginatively stepping into another person's perspective and considering how things look from over there, as if one were an insider while one is not one in fact. Success in empathetic understanding would be a matter of having (temporarily, in an act of imagination) entered the perspective of the other person sufficiently well to be able to re-present it credibly to others, especially and above all in a way that is recognizable and credible to those persons who themselves occupy that perspective.

eschatological: Pertaining to the end of history as we know it, sometimes spoken as the end of time. It relates to those religious traditions (primarily Western religions) that speak of a final end or culmination to human history, which is said to involve a cosmic judgment of persons in relation to the expectations of God and a final apportioning of justice in which each is expected to receive what he most truly deserves. There is no such conception in traditions (such as Eastern religions) which conceive cosmic time as cyclical rather than linear or non-repeating.

historical religion: A religious tradition which conceives itself to have originated in (or have been decisively shaped by) a revelation of "ultimate reality" intervening in human history through certain particular events, persons, and circumstances. Its central story will tell of a decisive revelation of trans-historical, universal significance as having actually taken place in historical time. In consequence, all efforts to convey the content of that alleged revelation will be shaped and colored by those historical particulars, and the tradition will continue to be preoccupied with those historical particulars as having been vested with eternal significance. The Western family of religions are all historical religions in this sense.

holiness of God: The awesome, infinite standard of righteousness, justice, and inward beauty that God in Western religions is understood both to set or establish and to be by his very being. This is a characteristic of "ultimate reality" held in common by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, but particularly stressed in Judaism.

monotheism: Belief that there exists one and only one God. A common trait among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

objectivity (the sense of objectivity appropriate to the study of religion): A striving to draw near to the object of investigation at the point where all relevant perspectives on it intersect, thus to comprehend it in its transcendence beyond any one perspective in a way that commands the recognition of those who dwell within them and know them well. It is fundamentally a matter of doing justice to the object itself, the object in the round. (This meaning of objectivity is to be distinguished from that often associated with modern natural science, namely a comprehensive methodology of distancing: of separating the investigating self from the object of investigation.)

oneness of God: The singularity of God in the understanding of Western religions, transcendent beyond all created things, as their creator, sustainer, providential governor, source of moral guidance, controller of their destiny, and final judge -- the singular focus of what should be one's ultimate allegiance. A characteristic of "ultimate reality" shared in common by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, but particularly stressed in Islam.

otherness of God: The person-like character of God in the understanding of Western religions, in virtue of which (a) God and his intentions in essential respects would not be known did he not reveal himself (make himself and his intentions known) in human history and (b) God is capable of entering into relationship with particular persons and peoples, thereby singling them out from among other persons and peoples to accomplish his special purposes in history.

presentational symbol: A religious symbol that serves not only to represent some aspect of what is taken to be ultimate reality but which in the appropriate circumstances serves for participants to render it present and enable direct participation in it. In that respect they are sometimes called sacramental symbols. All presentational symbols are in the first place representational symbols, but the reverse is not true.

problem of meaning: The respect in which events in human experience from time to time in a variety of different ways pose a threat to the ultimate meaningfulness of life and disclose a felt disrelationship between the persons feeing that threat and what is taken to be ultimate reality (i.e., a felt lack of rapport with, or need to be regrounded within whatever is conceived to be the ultimate ground of meaning and purpose in life). The question is, how to cope with the threat and, in the face of it, attain to an affirmation of the meaning and worth of life despite it. There are at least six different ways that such a threat is posed, six aspects of the problem of meaning, corresponding to each of the six ways of being religious, which are in turn six generic ways (that in principle might be found within any major tradition) of coping with the threat and attaining to an affirmation of the meaning and worth of life despite it.

prophet: A human spokesperson for God in Western religions, allegedly chosen and enabled by God to declare and make known his revelation to human beings, which revelation typically involves (in part at least) some divine moral expectation that needs to be heeded to get in right relationship with God.

public education religion studies (of the sort that is legally appropriate): Objective studies about religion (in contrast with studies assuming a religious perspective and designed to foster and support that perspective) in the context of public education that are consistent with the First Amendment of the U. S. Constitution, namely studies which are secular (neither promote nor hinder religion) in nature, intent, and purpose, studies whose primary effect is secular (in the same sense), and studies which involve no entanglement between the state and a religious organization.

religion (generic definition of): A means of getting in touch with and of attaining at-onement with "ultimate reality." In slightly different words, a religion is a system of symbols (e.g., words and gestures, stories and practices, objects and places) that functions religiously, namely, an ongoing system of symbols that participants use to draw near to, and come into right or appropriate relationship with, what they deem to be ultimate reality.

representational symbol (in the context of religion): Anything which refers to and thus represents something pertaining to "ultimate reality." Some such symbols under certain circumstances may also serve as presentational symbols, in which case they are experienced as conveying the very presence of what they are understood to represent.

revelation: A disclosure or communication by the "ultimate reality" to human beings of matters that would not otherwise be known, or not known as clearly and decisively. A primary religious concept within Western religions.

scandal of particularity: A feature of historical religions (see especially Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) whereby the universal and eternal message of divine revelation is accessible only in and through the particular historical and culturally specific circumstances in which it is held to have originally been given. In consequence, there results a perpetual controversy over sorting out what is essential to the divine message and what are the non-essential particulars of its initial historical reception. The mix often comes across as "scandalous" to outsiders who might identify with what seems to be matters of universal significance but are put off by what appears to be culturally and historically specific particulars.

system of symbols: The complex of stories, scriptures (if the tradition is literate), rituals, symbolic forms, and particular vocabulary for referring to what is taken to be ultimate reality, that as an interconnected whole constitute the core of a given religion.

test of empathy: One of two tests of candidates for empathetically objective interpretations of religious phenomena. Its purpose is to test how well one's interpretation has captured and conveyed an insider's perspective. The actual test is to see whether or not knowledgeable and thoughtful insiders can recognize their own understanding as insiders in the proposed interpretation.

test of neutrality: One of two tests of candidates for empathetically objective interpretations of religious phenomena. Its purpose is to test how well one's interpretation is disengaged from the expression of one's own personal attitude, orientation, and judgment toward the phenomena. The actual test is to see if a third party can detect from the interpretation any expression of your own attitude, orientation, and judgment, especially insofar as it may have biased, distorted, or colored what is conveyed by the interpretation.

threshold (of a system of symbols, of "another world to live in"): An entryway whereby one crosses the boundary from being outside the "other world" of a tradition to being inside it. Though it may be symbolized by a physical threshold (as to a temple or shrine), it essentially refers to a shift of consciousness from focally attending to a tradition's symbols to subsidiarily attending from them to what they symbolize, which is to say coming to dwell within them.

threshold effect: A change in the appearance and experienced texture of religious symbols as one crosses the threshold of a tradition's system of symbols and enters the "other world" to which it grants access, as one no longer looks at them from the outside but comes to dwell in them. On the outside, symbols are opaque and at best refer to matters within that other world. As one begins to cross the threshold, one begins to glimpse intimations of those matters more or less directly; the symbols become translucent. Insofar as one is able fully to cross the threshold, the symbols become transparent to their referents and serve to usher one into the very presence of them.

"ultimate reality": A variable standing for whatever the people of a given tradition take to be the ultimate ground of meaning and purpose in life--both how things are and how life ought to be lived. It stands for whatever is taken to make up the ultimate cosmic context of life that lies beyond the perspectives of ordinary human awareness and the mundane sphere of everyday life.

way of being religious: One generic manner and pattern among others of drawing near to and coming into right or appropriate relationship with what a religion takes to be ultimate reality. Each way is further characterized in terms of a mode of approach to what is taken to be the ultimate reality, an aspect of the problem of meaning to which it is addressed, a heremeneutical orientation, a pattern of social structures, and specific virtues and vices.

way of devotion: Cultivation of a personal relationship to "ultimate reality" of whole-hearted adoration, devotional surrender to "its" transforming grace, and trust in "its" providential care, anticipating in return an influx of sustaining energy, hope, and a sense of affirming presence or at-onement. It typically involves a conversion experience and emotional purgation.

way of mystical quest: Employment of ascetic and meditative disciplines in a deliberate quest to interrupt, slow down, or otherwise break through and become free of, the obscuring limitations and distracting compulsions of ordinary life in order to attain a direct awareness of "ultimate reality," come to be wholly at-one with it, and have life and one's relations with all things become transparently grounded in it. (The way of mystical quest should not be confused with "mysticism" as the term is used at large or by other authors, though there is in most cases some overlap. "Mysticism" in common usage is in some respects much broader, is focused more on extraordinary experiences, and, except for individual authors, is not possessed of a single, clear definition.)

way of reasoned inquiry: A rational, dialectical struggle to transcend conventional patterns of thinking in the effort attain understanding of, and consciousness-transforming insight into, what is taken to be the ultimate what, how, and why of things--i.e., to bring together and unite, so far as possible, mind with what is taken to be the ultimate Mind and thereby acquire a portion of divine wisdom. It typically involves systematic study of a tradition's scripture and previous attempts to articulate what is ultimately the case.

way of right action: Concerted effort to bring all of life, individual and communal, into conformity with the way things are ultimately supposed to be (however understood)--i.e., to realize and fulfill what is taken to be the sacred intendedness of life--that promises individual fulfillment, social justice, and the embodiment of divine ideality in the midst of mundane, this-worldly life.

way of sacred rite: Participation in the sacred archetypal patterns through which "ultimate reality" is understood by participants to be manifest, by means of symbolic ritual enactments or presentations that enable participants repeatedly to enter their presence, attain at-onement for the moment with them, and thereby have established and renewed their sense of meaningful order, identity, and propriety. It is typically communal rather than individual.

way of shamanic mediation: Entry into altered states of consciousness in which persons become mediators or channels for what is taken to be an intervention of spiritual reality, in the expectation that "supernatural" (trans-mundane) resources of imagination, power, and guidance will be released for solving or dealing with otherwise intractable problems of life. Expressed through phenomena such as "possession" (trance), "oracular utterance," "ecstatic vision," and/or "spirit journeying," it seeks at-onement with "ultimate reality" in what is taken to be its readiness to bring about healing, well-being, and fulfillment for the world.

Western religions: The family of major religious traditions which emerged in the Near East, primarily Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, each of which defines itself in certain respects in relation to the former as a further development or as a successor. All claim to be based upon a decisive revelation of "ultimate reality" as a person-like God.

HINDUISM TERMS

artha: Success, wealth, power. One of the four traditional goals of life which Hinduism recognizes. Along with kama, artha is said to be one of the paths of desire, a course of life charted by egoistic desire of the individual for finite, materialistic things.

ashrama: Any one of the four traditional stages of life through which a person ideally is supposed to pass on the way toward realizing moksha: the student stage (brahmacarya), the householder stage (grihastha), the forest dweller or hermit stage (vanaprastha), and the renouncer or wandering ascetic stage (sannyasa).

atman: The inner self or soul of a person, which transmigrates from one life to another and which, upon realizing moksha, is said to be united in some fundamental sense with the ultimate, universal self of the whole cosmos.

Bhagavad-Gita: Literally, "The Song of God." The most popular of Hindu scriptures, which occurs in the great epic known as the Mahabharata. It tells of the revelation and teaching of Krishna (one of the great avatars of Vishnu) to Arjuna as the climactic battle of the Mahabharata is about to begin.

bhakti yoga: The way to at-onement with ultimate reality (or God) through love and devotion
(corresponding to the Way of Devotion in Hinduism). The discipline of becoming so devoted to God (one's ishtadeva, one's adopted form or face of God), surrendered to his or her grace, and enflamed by love for God, that all self-centered attachments to this-worldly concerns is burnt away. It addresses and appeals to the person victimized by his or her passions and who seeks a true, eternal object of affection.

Brahma: One of the great gods of Hinduism, though not one around whom a significant worshipping community has formed. Brahma is usually associated with the creation of the cosmos.

brahman: Ultimate reality, as Hinduism speaks of it, the ground and source of all that is. Sometimes (particularly in the Upanishads) it is referred to as impersonal or transpersonal, beyond all name and form. But some Hindu traditions identify it as the transcendent Godhead that chooses to manifest itself in a more personal form, say as Vishnu, Shiva, or the Goddess.

brahmin: A member of the highest caste (varna); traditionally identified as specialists concerned with relations with ultimate reality, custodians and teachers of the Veda(s) and other Hindu scriptures.

darshana: The act of ritually "seeing" a god, in which the divine image functions presentationally or sacramentally, and the "seer" understands herself/himself as being in the very presence of the god and for the moment at-one with the god. The climax or goal of puja, the worship characteristic of bhakti yoga.

deva/devi: The Hindu word for male god/female god (plural: devata).

dharma: The eternal natural law, moral as well as causal, that governs all existence, human and non-human (including divine beings), and is thought to be built into the nature of things. More specifically, moral and spiritual duty in accord with cosmic law and order, especially duty as dictated by age, temperament, and social status.
Dharma is also said to be one of the four traditional goals of life recognized by Hinduism, and one of the two involving renunciation of the paths of ego-centric desire. The moral consequences that follow from obeying/disobeying dharma are thought to be natural consequences, not imposed by some external enforcer. Dharma is said to be subtle and almost impossible to know directly, requiring most persons to learn it from the Hindu Scriptures--which are believed to have been composed by rishis ("seers"), persons who had extraordinarily developed spiritual insight and understanding. For many Hindus, especially those that follow karma yoga, though not for all Hindus, the ultimate reality and dharma are virtually one and the same. The word used by Hindus for what we call Hinduism is sanatana-dharma ("eternal dharma").

dhyana yoga (sometimes called raja yoga): The way to at-onement with ultimate reality (or God) through psychophysical exercises and meditation (corresponding to the Way of Mystical Quest in Hinduism). (Dhyana means meditation; raja means king). The discipline of deliberately and painstakingly taking control of and dismantling the psychic mechanisms of the finite individual ego that keep one from realizing conscious at-onement with ultimate reality within, through ascetic and meditative practices. Note: it is not a single path but encompasses several distinct paths involving quite different teachings and practices. It addresses the person of an experimental "scientific" bent who would see and taste and demonstrate directly for himself or herself what is claimed about ultimate reality.

Durga: One of the most popular forms of the Goddess, usually portrayed as beautiful and with a gentle face, yet holding weapons in her 10 arms to vanquish demons and other forms of evil.

Gandhi (1869-1948): Spiritual and political leader who fought (nonviolently) against racial discrimination in South Africa and British rule in India, and led a campaign to end discrimination against "outcastes" or "untouchables" in India. His teaching expressed a new and radical form of karma yoga, that sought to change society for the better through the use of non-violent civil disobedience.

Ganesha: Popular elephant-headed god, son of Shiva, "remover of obstacles." and "patron of learning."

henotheism: A Western term denoting the type of theology found throughout Hinduism, namely the teaching that there is a single ultimate reality behind the many gods of devotional Hinduism, each of the gods representing one of many "faces" through which the one ultimate reality is "personally" manifest and through which the one ultimate reality may be worshipped.

ishtadeva: A "self-chosen deity." This is the term followers of bhakti yoga use to refer to the particular manifestation of the ultimate deity they choose to worship, corresponding to their particular personal needs and personality.

jati: Literally, "birth." This denotes the classification or sub-caste into which persons are grouped according to the traditional role or roles to which their family has been assigned in the community. In practice, jati is more determinative of one's duties (svadharma) and one's complex, rule-governed relations with others than is varna (caste).

jnana yoga: The way to at-onement with ultimate reality (or God) through knowledge or life-transforming insight into ultimate reality (i.e., the Way of Reasoned Inquiry in Hinduism). The discipline of seeking and attaining perfect knowledge of the ultimate reality through intuitive intellectual discernment, transforming one's sense of selfhood. It addresses and appeals to the person who needs to have things make intellectual sense.

Kali: One of the most popular forms of the Goddess, portrayed as an ugly 10 armed hag, dripping with blood and garlanded with skulls, destroyer of hypocrisy and selfishness. Sometimes she is offered blood sacrifices of goats.

kama: Pleasure--including, but not only, sexual pleasure. One of the four traditional goals of life which Hinduism recognizes. Along with artha, kama is said to be one of the paths of desire, a course of life charted by egoistic desire of the individual for finite, materialistic things.

karma: The law of moral cause and effect; also a person's moral merit/demerit according to one's actions and (moreso) the inner intentions or motives which accompany them in terms of their conformity/non-conformity with dharma. One's karma is said to entail one's rebirth in order for that karma to be realized or fulfilled, and to determine the circumstances of that subsequent life. Attainment of moksha is thought to eliminate the production of karma (in the second sense) altogether, and to bring to an end the cycle of rebirth (samsara).

karma yoga: The way to at-onement with ultimate reality (or God) through work or right action
(corresponding to the Way of Right Action in Hinduism, and fused in many ways with the Way of Sacred Rite). The discipline of doing one's own duty (svadharma) selflessly, for its own sake, without attachment to its results (its "fruits"), and with no thought that "I am the agent." It addresses and appeals to the person who feels that something must be done to set things right and insure their proper functioning, and/or the person who would draw near to and invoke through appropriate rituals the sacred archetypes that give true structure, meaning, and vitality to life.

Krishna: The most popular of Vishnu's many avatars (descents or incarnations to destroy evil and restore dharma). Many of Krishna's devotees consider him on a par with Vishnu himself and not a mere avatar. There are hundreds of stories of Krishna, which tell of him as divine infant, mischievious youth, lover, and mighty hero. He is the main figure in the Bhagavad Gita. His lover consort is Radha.

kundalini yoga: A form of dhyana yoga used in Right-handed Tantra. It involves activation of a succession of centers along the vertical axis of the body called chakras by raising and refining the kundalini energy that is latent at the base of the spine, culminating in the bliss of union with ultimate reality.

Mahabharata: One of the two great epics of Indian literature, a small portion of which is the Bhagavad Gita. Vishnu and his incarnation as Krishna in particular figure prominently in the epic.

mandala: A visual symbol used to focus mediation (as in dhyana yoga), bringing into unity the structure of the inner self with that of the whole cosmos.

mantra: A sacred syllable or sequence of syllables (sometimes a name, a word, or a phrase) that is used in meditation (as in dhyana yoga), usually assigned by one's guru, and believed to tune one into the divine ground of existence. One of the most well known is the sacred sound Om (or Aum).

moksha: (Simultaneously) liberation or release from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and at-onement with ultimate reality as Hinduism conceives it. It is said to be characterized by limitless being (sat; unconfined, deathless, united with all), limitless awareness or consciousness (chit), and limitless bliss or joy (ananda).

outcastes or untouchables (harijans ["children of God"], according to Gandhi): Persons who fall outside the structure of varna or caste, whose traditional role is to care for ritually impure and ritually polluting activities. Consequently, they have been treated traditionally as sources of pollution (ritual impurity), from which all others (but especially brahmins) must keep their distance. Gandhi sought to overturn (and succeeded in making illegal) the traditional discrimination against these people.

Patanjali (ca. 200 CE ?): Composer of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which founded the so called Classical system of dhyana (or raja) yoga. This system recognizes eight stages of practice, moving progressively from external control to inner knowledge, culminating in a final trance state known as samadhi, in which the object of meditation vanishes and the mind is said to swell to encompass a limitless reality, limitless awareness, and limitless bliss.

Rama: One of the two most popular of Vishnu's avatars, model king, embodiment of righteousness, and model husband, whose life is told in the Ramayana.

Ramanuja (1017-1137 CE): Hindu philosopher/theologian of the Vaishnavite bhakti tradition. He argued against the monistic, impersonalist philosophy of Non-dual (Advaita) Vedanta represented by Shankara, and sought to establish a conception of the state of moksha as one in which the identity of the bhakti mystic is not dissolved but preserved in a personalistic union with God. In this respect, Ramanuja succeeded in establishing philosophical respectability for personalistic conceptions of ultimate reality as found in the bhakti traditions.

Ramayana: One of the two great epics of Indian literature, telling the story of one of Vishnu's avatars known as Rama. The Ramayana tells the story of Rama and his wife Sita (the ideal domestic couple), Sita's abduction by the demon Ravanna, and her rescue with the help of the monkey king Hanuman (who is later made into a god) and his monkey army.

samsara: the cycle of rebirth, the human predicament of separation from ultimate reality, whose only escape is the attainment of moksha. Samsara is imaged as an ever revolving wheel of wandering from existence to existence.

Shaivas: Worshippers of Shiva.

Shaktas: Worshippers of the Goddess. (Shakta is the name of the divine energy of the Gods, very often personifed as feminine.)

Shankara (788-820 CE): One of the greatest Hindu philosophers/theologians who most fully developed the monistic, impersonalist philosophy of Non-dual (Advaita) Vedanta. This philosophy teaches that the realm of everyday, commonsense experience is ultimately a unreal tissue of illusion and delusion, and that ultimate reality experienced in moksha is a dissolution of individuality altogether, leaving only the impersonal reality of Brahman. This view denies the validity of personalistic conceptions of ultimate reality such as are found in bhakti traditions.

Shiva: One of the most popular of gods in bhakti Hinduism. To his worshippers, Shiva is known as Mahadeva (the great God), god of opposites: light and darkness, good and evil, creation and destruction, rest and activity, mild and terrible, male and female. He is said to be the patron of yogis (followers of dhyana yoga). One of his popular images is that of the cosmic dancer (Shiva-nataraj), whose dance brings the cosmos into being, sustains it, and will eventually bring about its dissolution, only to be recreated again. His most common image is the lingam, an abstract symbol of Shiva's regenerative powers--sometimes seen sexually as a phallus but more often not. He is not worshipped in the form of an avatar. Shiva's consort or wife is Parvati. Devotees of Shiva are known as Shaivas.

svadharma: One's own moral and spiritual duty as dictated by age, temperament, and social status--i.e., the dharma as it pertains to the peculiar role one is destined to play in life. One's karma is said to be based on how one relates to one's svadharma.

tantra: A tradition of dhyana yoga called tantra yoga (also called kundalini yoga) which involves male-female cosmic symbolism, is often associated with Saktism (worship of the Goddess). It has two forms (two subtraditions): Right-handed Tantra and Left-handed Tantra. Right-handed Tantra involves activation of a succession of centers along the vertical axis of the body called chakras by raising and refining the kundalini energy that is latent at the base of the spine, culminating in the bliss of union with ultimate reality. Left-handed Tantra involves the same except it is pursued as a transcendence of opposites and makes use of practices forbidden to orthodox Hindus (e.g., eating the five forbidden foods, ritualized sex) as vehicles of transcendence.

Upanishads: The books which bring the Vedas, the most sacred and authoritative scriptures of
Hinduism, to a close. They are philosophical inquiries into the human condition and the nature of ultimate reality, written in the form of dialogues between teacher (guru) and student(s).

Vaishnavas: Worshippers of Vishnu.

varna: The Hindu word for caste (literally meaning "color"). Traditionally there are four castes ranked from highest to lowest: the caste of priests and philosophers (brahmin or brahmana), the specialists of relations with ultimate reality; the caste of rulers and warriors (kshatrya), who function to guard and preserve the society; the caste of farmers and merchants (vaishya), who function to maintain the society economically; and manual laborers and artisans (shudra), who function to provide the common labor that makes society work. Outside the caste structure are the "outcastes" or "untouchables," who function to carry out ritually impure activities.

varnashramadharma: The moral and religious duty (dharma) as dictated by caste (varna) and stage of life (ashrama).

Vedanta: Literally, "the end of the Veda." The name for philosophical or theological views based on the teaching of the Upanishads.

Vedas (also Veda): The most sacred and authoritative of the vast array of Hindu scriptures, composed of four strands: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda, each of which is made up of Samhitas (hymns), Brahmanas (prose commentary), and Upanishads (philosophical speculation).

Vishnu: One of the most popular of gods in bhakti Hinduism. He is said to be the preserver of the natural order of the cosmos and especially of dharma. He is portrayed as a God of love and benevolence, greatly concerned for human welfare. Whenever the state of the world and of dharma degenerates, Vishnu is said to appear in earthly form (as one of his 10 avatars or incarnations) to destroy evil and restore dharma. His most popular avatars include Krishna and Rama. Vishnu's consort or wife Lakshmi. Devotees of Vishnu are known as Vaishnavas.

yoga: Any one of several paths of spiritual discipline intended to lead a person to deliverance from samsara and the realization of moksha--i.e., to at-onement with ultimate reality. Specifically, it means a "yoking" of the self by spiritual discipline, a method of training designed to lead to union of the human spirit with ultimate reality and release from the limits of the individual ego. Also called margas (paths to salvation). Normally following a yoga involves apprenticeship to a guru (spiritual teacher or guide).

JAINISM TERMS

Agamas: Literally, "precepts;" the scriptures of Jainism (also called Siddhantas ["treatises"]). They include three groups: Purva (now said to be lost), Anga (containing the teachings of Mahavira), and Acangara (containing the life of Mahavira and rules of conduct).

ahimsa: Non-violence, non-injury, toward all living creatures--including toward those undetected and unrecognized by commonsense which are believed to inhabit what are thought to be non-living objects. One of the most important Jain principles, which in all probability influenced Hinduism and Buddhism.

ajiva: Non-life or matter. One of the two fundamental kinds of reality, according to Jainism. The path to ultimate liberation or kevela involves a progressive purification of oneself of all ajiva, the accumulation of matter soils and weighs down one's otherwise pure spirit, as a result of the wrong sort of actions and attitudes, destining it to unhappy rebirths.

Digambara: "Sky clad," meaning those who have renounced the use of clothing. One of the two major groups or sects of Jainism. They do not allow women to enter their monastic order and believe it is impossible for a jiva as a woman to attain enlightenment (kevela). I.e., for them, women must await a subsequent favorable rebirth to attain enlightenment.

jain: A follower of the teaching and modeling of the Jinas or Tirthankaras, the spiritual giants of this world cycle who have discovered the way across the stream of mortal misery to the farther shore of salvation.

jina: "Conquerer" (same as tirthankara). One of the 24 spiritual giants of the current world half cycle who have discovered the way across the stream of mortal misery to the farther shore of salvation.

jiva: Life, spirit, sout. One of the two fundamental kinds of reality, according to Jainism. The path to ultimate liberation or kevela involves a progressive purification of one's jiva of all ajiva, the accumulation of matter that weighs down one's spirit, as a result of the wrong sort of actions and attitudes.

karma: The accumulation of spiritual demerit as a result of committing the wrong sort of actions and attitudes (especially injurious, possessive, and/or judgmental kinds). In Jainism, karma is conceived as a kind of sticky substance that attracts particles or atoms of ajiva, thus soiling and weighing down one's otherwise pure jiva, destining it to unhappy rebirths..

kevela: The highest state of enlightenment, according to Jainism, the culmination of a fourteen stage path to liberation. Upon death, one who has attained kevela ascends as a pure jiva to the uppermost region of the universe, Isatpragbhara, in which they retain their identity in utter bliss and omniscience.

Mahavira (599- BCE): The historical founder of Jainism, said to be the 24th and last of the Jinas of the current world half-cycle.

Svetambara: "White clad." The largest and most liberal of the two major groups or sects of Jainism. Their name means those who wear white and reject the nudity practiced by the more conservative Digambara ("Sky clad") sect. Svetambaras allow women into the Jain monastic order and accept the possibility that a woman may attain kevela.

Tirthankara: "Ford finder" or "ford builder" (same as jina). One of the 24 spiritual giants of the current world half-cycle who have discovered the way across the stream of mortal misery to the farther shore of salvation and who have taught it to others.

SIKHISM TERMS

Adi Granth: The sacred scripture of Sikhism, also called Guru Granth Sahib. It is revered as the present Guru of Sikhism, and is the center of Sikh devotion and worship and is believed by Sikh's to contain the answer to every question faithfully asked of it. The word itself means "original collection," and contains the writings of Nanak, the gurus who followed him, Kabir, and numerous other Sikh, Hindu, and Muslim religious teachers. The collection was begun by the fifth guru, Arjan, and was itself given the status of guru for the Sikh community by the tenth guru, Gobind Singh.

gurdwara: The Sikh house of worship, the symbolical home of the present guru, the Adi Granth. Worship therein takes place normally every morning and evening, centering upon a reading and explanation of a passage from the Adi Granth, and a a symbolic sacred meal. All persons are welcome without discrimination to worship and eat together, and to cleanse themselves at a common water tank.

guru: "Teacher" or "spiritual guide," as in Hinduism, but connoting in Sikhism something akin to "prophet" in the sense found in Western religions--namely, a "spokesperson for the Word of God," a "declarer of divine revelation." Sikhs count a total of 10 successive human Gurus, beginning with Nanak, the last of which appointed the Sikh holy book, the Adi Granth, to be thereafter the Guru for the Sikh community. Behind each of these Gurus is said to be the supreme Guru, God, to whose voice the heart of each Sikh is supposed to be responsive.

Kalsa: Egalitarian Sikh fraternity founded by the 10th Guru, Gobind Singh, made up equally of males and females, pleged to give their lives if necessary to defend Sikhism, live by a special code of discipline, undergo a symbolic baptism, wear a distinctive dress, bear five symbols, and take on a special name (Singh ["lion"] for males, Kaur ["princess"] for females). This group makes up the largest sect of Sikhism

Kaur: "Princess" -- name taken by women upon joining the Kalsa, though they apparently maintain their father's (and when married, their husband's) surname.

Nam: The One True Name of God, connoting at once the respect in which God is said both to transcend all names and images of God in the religious of the world (while nevertheless being manifestations of God) and to reveal himself personally to the heart of those who seek him. I.e., God's own divine presence as Sikhism understands it and Sikhs believe themselves to experience it. Literally, the word means "name."

Nanak (1459-1539 CE): The historical founder of Sikhism and its first Guru. Originally of Hindu Vaishnava (devotional bhakti mysticism) background and profoundly influenced by Muslim Sufism (devotional mysticism), Nanak taught a way (which became Sikhism) which purported to be not one religion alongside others but the universal truth within, and transcending, all other religions. The life story of Nanak, in which God is said to appoint Nanak as Guru, is the central story of Sikhism.

nirvana: Deliverance from the human predicament of being bound in self-centeredness to the cycle of samsara and attainment of mystical union with God. This is a term which Sikhism has borrowed from Buddhism, which there means a "blowing out" of the flame of self-centered craving.

Sikh: Member of the Sikh religion. The word means "disciple," "student," and "seeker of truth." For members of the Sikh religion, it means a person who responds with the heart to the voice of the Guru -- above all, to the voice of God, the supreme Guru.

Singh: "Lion" -- name taken by men upon joining the Kalsa.

BUDDHISM TERMS
(All foreign terms and names are Sanskrit, unless otherwise noted. Pali is the language of Theravada Buddhism. Sanskrit is the original language of Mahayana Buddhism.)

Amitabha Sanskrit (Ami-to-fo Chinese, Amida Japanese): Buddha of "unlimited light;" a supreme personification of compassion, who is said to have created a pure "Buddha Land," the "Western Paradise," beyond the realm of samsara and free of all obstacles to the attainment of Enlightenment, such that whoever calls upon Amitabha's help and meditates upon Amitabha and his Pure Land will be reborn there. Pure Land Buddhists revere Amitabha as a kind of intermediary, a source of help and grace, between humanity and the ultimate reality, to assist and enable them to attain at-onement with it.

anatman Sanskrit (anatta Pali): Literally, "no self," "absent of selfhood," "having no self-being." One of the Three Marks of existence, along with anitya Sanskrit (annica Pali) (transitory, in flux, ever changing) and duhkha Sanskrit and Pali (sorrow producing to an ego-centric perspective). Specifically, the Buddhist teaching that all things lack a permanent, enduring, substantial self; that they lack autonomous existence; that considered unto themselves they have no reality. Contrariwise, it implies that what reality they do have is ultimately interdependent or relational in a continuous flux.

arhant Sanskrit (arahant Pali): Literally, "one who is deserving of reverence, worthy." A person who has attained enlightenment through following the Eightfold Path and reached absolute holiness; the ideal of Theravada Buddhism.

bhiksu / bhikkhu: Buddhist monk.

bhiksuni / bhikkhuni: Buddhist nun.

bodhisattva: Literally, an "enlightened being." A Buddha-to-be whose primary virtue is compassion and who deliberately chooses to be reborn into samsara rather than enter fully into nirvana in order to work tirelessly for the sake of other living beings. Particularly important in Mahayana Buddhism, for whom the ideal of the bodhisattva is set in contrast to the Theravada Buddhist ideal of the arhat, whose primary goal is liberation and enlightenment for himself. The most famous bodhisattva figure is Avalokitesvara, who became Kuan-yin in China and Kannon in Japan.

Buddha: Literally, "awakened." Traditionally, a fully enlightened being who has realized the truth of Dharma and attained nirvana. The title given to Gautama after his enlightenment. As realized in Gautama, it is the first of the Three Treasures in which all Budddhists "take refuge." In Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhas come to be seen less as humans who have achieved enlightenment than as manifestations or expressions of the the Dharmakaya or Buddha nature at the heart of the universe, which said to be none other than our deepest and truest self.

Chan Chinese, (Zen Japanese): Literally, "meditation" school or lineage -- translating dhyana Sanskrit. A traditional lineage of Mahayana Buddhism finding fullest expression in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, particularly known for emphasizing meditation and direct intuitive insight into one's own Buddha-nature in contrast with other practices. Apparently influenced a great deal by the indigenous Chinese religious context, especially Daoism.

compassion (karuna): One of the primary virtues of an enlightened being, according to all lineages of Buddhism, but particularly stressed in Mahayana Buddhism and the figure of the bodhisattva. Accordingly, all Buddhists are encouraged to practice compassion. The Dalai Lama has gone so far as to say that compassion is the main or chief practice of Buddhism. Some teachings of Mahayana Buddhism also claim that the Dharmakaya, the ultimate reality at the heart of the universe which is manifest above all in the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, is characterized by compassion.

Dalai Lama: Leader of Gelukpa lineage of Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism, and spiritual leader of the Tibetan people. Lama means "spiritual master" of Tibetan Vajrayana practice; dalai means "ocean of wisdom." The current Dalai Lama is believed to be the 14th reincarnation in a row of Dalai Lamas dating back to the 14th century, all of whom are revered as an incarnation of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.

Dharma Sanskrit (Dhamma Pali): This word has different meanings in different Buddhist texts. First of all, it is the Teaching of the Buddha, the Truth that he realized in his enlightenment and the path to enlightenment. In this sense, it is the second of the Three Treasures in which all Buddhists "take refuge." Second, it is the nature and structure of Reality. Third, it is the moral law, what is right and just, how we should live. Fourth, in Theravada Buddhism, it is the immediate constituents (dharmas) of all phenomena (including all things, mental and physical) in the realm of samsara.

Dharmakaya: Literally, "Dharma-body." In Mahayana Buddhist teaching, the Dharmakaya is said to be the ultimate Buddha-reality at the heart of the entire universe, of which the universe is itself the expression or manifestation, yet which is most clearly manifest in Buddhas. This conception is part of the Three Bodies (of the Buddha) teaching, which identifies the ultimate Buddha-nature common to all Buddhas as the Dharmakaya.

duhkha Sanskrit and Pali: Literally, "suffering" and "sorrow;" also "dislocated" and "off center." One of the Three Marks of existence, along with anitya Sanskrit (annica Pali) (transitory, in flux, ever changing) and anatman Sanskrit (anatta Pali) (lacking permanent, enduring, autonomous or separate selfhood). Specifically, the Buddhist teaching that all things are such as to produce unhappiness and suffering for an ego-centric perspective, which by reactive response tends to produce even more unhappiness and suffering for oneself and others.

Eightfold Path: A summary of the Middle Way that the Buddha taught as the path to nirvana or enlightenment. It involves three components: wisdom (prajna), moral practice (shila), and meditative concentration (samadhi). Wisdom includes right views or right understanding and right intent or right motivation. Moral Practice includes right speech, right conduct, and right livelihood. Meditative Concentration includes right effort or right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The eight components are often depicted as the eight spokes of the wheel of Dharma, and progress in the Eightfold Path is construed as a spiraling movement from the circumference to the center, in which each of the components is attended to as one moves closer to enlightenment.

emptiness (shunyata): The teaching that all things are empty of substantial independent being, empty of self-being. The favorite Mahayana explanation of the older anatman doctrine; the claim is that, while on the surface (to an ego-centric viewpoint) things appear substantial, to the enlightened viewpoint of prajna-paramita they are found to be empty inside, without independent reality or enduring substantiality. Yet this negative characterization is seen not as negative but rather as positive and good. I.e., In their ultimate reality, all things are non-self-centered, non-selfish, not turned in upon themselves, but interconnected and interdependent.

Five Precepts: The basic moral precepts for all Buddhists: to refrain from destroying life, from taking what is not given, from wrongful sexual behavior, from wrongful speech, and from drugs and alcohol.

Four Noble Truths: The core or central teaching of Buddhism put in the fomula of a physician's
diagnosis of disease, statement of cause, forecast of cure, and prescription. In content, it states that human life is pervasively characterized by duhkha; that the cause of duhkha is tanha; that tanha can be rooted out or extinguished (which is the condition of nirvana); and that the means of attaining nirvana is the Eightfold Path.

Gautama Sanskrit (Gotama Pali) (563-483 BCE): The the historical founder of Buddhism. (Strictly speaking, this is the surname of the historical Buddha. His personal name was Siddartha. His clan name was Shakya, which led to the title, Shakyamuni, "sage of the Shakya clan.")

karma Sanskrit (kamma Pali): First, action performed by body, speech, or mind, which, according to the intention it embodies, will have a set consequence, to be experienced in this life or a future rebirth. Generally, negative consequences are accrued from actions motivated by tanha. Second, the law of moral consequences of human action. Third, the moral credit / debit accrued to a person according to his or her actions motived by tanha, which must be expended in the person's next life in one of the six realms of existence. (See also "merit.")

Kuan Yin Chinese (Kannon Japanese): Female version of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (which is in part the result of a mistranslation of the name into Chinese). As the embodiment of compassion, she is a very popular focus of Buddhist devotion in China and Japan. A frequent subject of sculpture and painting.

lineage: The line of unbroken connection or descent by which different Buddhist traditions claim authority for the authenticity of their teaching and practice.

Mahayana: Literally, "great vehicle." The inclusive term for those Buddhist traditions which arose in India but spread North and East into China and the Far East, which emphasized the ideal of the bodhisattva over that of the arhat, did not lay such a strong stress upon needing to become a monk or a nun to pursue enlightenment, and which hold to the Sanskrit canon of Buddhist scriptures.

Maitreya: The next or future Buddha, who is said to be currently alive as a bodhisattva and high god in his present birth, able to respond to the prayers of his worshippers. The only bodhisattva in the present agea recognized by Theravada Buddhists.

Merit (punya): Merit in the Buddhist conception is a kind of spiritual credit that accrues to the doer of any truly good, unselfish deed, word, or thought. Good merit is believed to bring good consequences to the doer or to anyone to whom he "transfers" his merit. It is believed able to directly contribute to the effort to attain enlightenment. Good deeds of a mundane nature produce limited merit. Supramundane deeds produce unlimited merit.

mindfulness (or mindfulness meditation; vipashyana Sanskrit [vipassana Pali]): One of the most
fundamental characteristic practices involved in Buddhist meditation (identified as one of the components making up the Eightfold Path). It specifically involves a step-by-step heightening of one's awareness, sensitivity, and clarity of attentiveness toward everything that is going on in one's life, inside and outside.

Nagarjuna (ca. 150-250 CE): One of the greatest Buddhist philosophers of the Mahayana tradition, specifically of the Madhyamika school of thought, which emphasized prajna-paramita, how all attempts to put what is ultimate reality into ordinary language must fail, and that ultimately nirvana is none other than samsara rightly seen for what it truly is.

nirvana Sanskrit (nibbana Pali): Literally, the "blowing out" or "extinguishing" of tanha, the source of human suffering or duhkha in a person and of the ego-centric self, which binds one to the wheel of rebirth or samsara. Nirvana's positive meaning is enlightenment, at-onement with ultimate reality beyond all name and form, and interdependent unity or oneness with all things.

prajna-paramita: "Perfect wisdom," the wisdom that has gone beyond" -- i.e., how things are in an ultimate perspective, from the perspective of a truly enlightened person. This is a philosophical concept developed in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, and involves a number of paradoxical doctrines that conflict radically with ordinary and commonsense understandings of things. Ordinary and commonsense understandings (including opposites like nirvana and samsara) are said to be interpretations produced by an unenlightened ego-centric perspective to create objects for tanha. Whereas ultimate reality cannot be grasped by tanha at all. In the ultimate perspective, then, nirvana is none other than samsara but rightly seen for what it truly is. Opposites are annihilated; time and eternity are two aspects of the same whole. To experience nirvana is to be one with each moment of the live flow as it occurs, to experience the bliss of utter oneness with all things as one transcends all forms.

Pratimoksha Sanskrit (Pattimokkha Pali): Literally, "Code of Unity." The 227 rules (more for nuns) to be kept by monks of the highest or full ordination, listed in order of seriousness of offence. In Theravada Buddhism, monks and nuns are committed to recite the code in unison twice a month. The most serious are the first four: to abstain from all sexual intercourse, to abstain from taking what is not given, to avoid intentionally destroying the life of any being, and to avoid attributing to oneself any superhuman condition.

Pure Land: A Buddha land created by means of the boundless merit (see "merit") accumulated and compassion built up by a bodhisattva-become-Buddha, and the focus for a specific form of meditation. It is believed that Buddha lands lie beyond the conditioned realm of samsara. Persons reborn there are said to experience no obstacles to the attainment of Enlightenment. Traditions of Pure Land Buddhism follow a practice of devotion (bhakti) focused on Buddhas or bodhisattvas who the scriptures identify as having created Pure Lands, in hope of receiving help in daily life and rebirth in the Pure Land.

samsara Sanskrit and Pali: The round of existence and transmigration; the realm into which karma-laden beings are reborn and die recurrently, made up of six different realms, including the human realm. I.e., the unenlightened human condition; the condition of being not-at-one with ultimate reality and one's ultimate true self; the opposite of nirvana.

sangha Sanskrit and Pali: Literally, "assemblage." The Order or community of monks, nuns, and laity founded by the Buddha to carry on the teaching and practice of the Dharma. One of the Three Treasures or Jewels in which all Buddhists "take refuge." Theravada Buddhists usually take it to refer only to the monastic order.

trsna Sanskrit / tanha Pali: Literally "craving" or "thirst." It is the word used in Buddhism to name the root cause of human suffering or duhkha in a person that, by binding a person to its objects, gives rise to and maintains the ego-centric self and makes the person subject to the wheel of birth and death or samsara. It is analyzed into three components: (egocentric) desire, (egocentric) aversion or fear, and (egocentric) ignorance or delusion. All Buddhist efforts center upon calming, reducing, and eventually extinguishing the inner flame of tanha.

Theravada: Literally, "the way or teaching of the elders." Originally an early sect of Buddhism which established itself in Sri Lanka about 240 BCE. Today the term is used to designate the conservatve school of Southern Buddhism found in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, which emphasizes the ideal of the arhant, stresses needing to become a monk or a nun to seriously pursue enlightenment, and holds to the Pali canon of Buddhist scriptures. (Southern Buddhism or Theravada is often referred to pejoratively as Hinayana (meaning, lesser vehicle) by Mahayana Buddhists.

Three Bodies [of the Buddha]: Mahayana teaching of three dimensions of the Buddha understood cosmically: the Dharmakaya or Dharma body that is common to all Buddhas and is said to be the ultimate Buddha-nature at the heart of the entire universe; the "Bliss" body (Sambhoghakaya) of cosmic or divine Buddhas throughout the universe (including, for example, the Buddha Amitabha); and the "Appearance" or "Transformation" body (Nirmanakaya) of flesh- and-blood Buddhas such as Gautama.

Three Refuges: The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. Many Buddhist prayers and rituals involve "taking refuge" in these three "Treasures" or "Jewels" of Buddhism.

Triipitaka Sanskrit (Tipitaka Pali): Literally, "the three baskets." Specifically, the Buddhist scriptures, particularly the scriptures of the Pali collection, made up of Sutras (alleged discourses of the Buddha), Abidharma Sanskirt (Abidhamma Pali) (explanation of Buddhist teachings), and Vinaya (ethical teaching and monastic discipline).

Vajrayana: Literally, "diamond vehicle." The Tantric tradition of Buddhism, represented especially in Tibet, but also minor lineages in China and Japan. It maintains most of mainstream Mahayana teachings, but adds to them adaptations of practices and teachings found in Tantric Hinduism and occasionally shamanistic practices. It thus incorporates into Buddhist practice major elements of the Ways of Sacred Rite and Shamanic Mediation and forms of meditation involving elaborate visualizations.

zazen Japanese: Literally, "seated meditation." The central practice in different forms of Zen

Zen Japanese (Chan Chinese): Literally, "meditation" school or lineage -- translating dhyana Sanskrit. A traditional lineage of Mahayana Buddhism finding fullest expression in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, particularly known for emphasizing meditation and direct intuitive insight into one's own Buddha-nature in contrast with other practices. Apparently influenced a great deal by the indigenous Chinese religious context, especially Daoism.

RELIGIONS OF CHINA TERMS

(Note: Chinese transliterations are given first in the Pinyin spelling [a more recent, more phonetic system of transliteration into English], with the more commonly used Wade-Giles spelling following the "/" mark.)

Church or Religious Taoism [Dao Jiao /Dao Chiao]: An institutionalized form of Daoism, with priesthood, pantheon of gods, and elaborate system of rituals intended to bring individuals and the community into harmony with the Dao as expressed in what are taken to be the many spiritual powers on which life in its wholeness depends. While maintaining many of the values of Philosophical Daoism, it incorporates sacred rites and shamanic practices (and therewith many aspects of Chinese folk religion) for the sake of restoring and maintaining the well-being of human life.

Confucius [Kong-zi /K'ung-fu Tzu] (551-479 BCE): Great teacher and founder of Confucianism, whose teaching became dominant for most educated Chinese for 20 centuries.

Confucianism: The religious, philosophical, and moral tradition founded by Confucius, whose scriptures are the Five Classics and Four Books, which is identified with Confucius’ teaching as understood and elaborated by subsequent Confucian teachers over the centuries.

Dao /Tao: "Way," encompassing both (a) the way or teaching of a religion or philosophy and (b) the ultimate way or movement of the universe as a whole -- i.e., ultimate reality conceived impersonally as the dynamic, unifying principle of all things -- for Daoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism.

Dao De Jing /Tao Te Ching: The founding text and classic scripture of Daoism, especially Philosophical Daoism, allegedly composed by the legendary sage Lao-zi. The title means "the book [jing] of the Way [Dao] and its power or virtue [de]." The book is entirely in poetic form and celebrates the Dao, its mysterious and indefinable nature, its being the source and controlling principle of all things, and the difficulty of apprending it.

Daoism: The religious, philosophical, and moral tradition allegedly founded by Lao-zi, whose founding scripture is the Dao de Jing, and which is expressed in three forms: Church or Religious Daoism (Dao Jiao), Philosophical Daoism (Dao Jia), and Daoist hygiene and yoga.

Daoist hygiene and yoga: An assortment of spiritual and physical disciplines associated with Daoism which are designed to bring about perfect harmony and at-onement with the Dao and build up or increase the supply of qi /ch’i, the vital energy or life-force, within oneself. Under the goal of seeking "immortality," it pursues on the one hand vital health, slowing down the aging process, living without illness and pain, etc., and on the other hand a spiritual death of the individual self to be reborn or transmuted into a selfless expression of the eternal Dao. One popular expression of this tradition is Tai ji.

divination: Various techniques of reading and interpreting the movements of the spiritual forces of nature and the spirits (including one’s ancestors) in order to bring one’s actions and decisions into harmony with them and insure prosperity and well being. They include such things as consulting the Yi Jing, tossing divination blocks at a local temple, astrology, feng shui, and employing the assistance of shamans to contact the spirits of the dead.

Doctrine of the Mean: This phrase refers to two things: (1) the Zhong Yong /Chung Yung, one of the Four Books making up the distinctly Confucian scriptures (above and beyond the Five Classics), which explains the metaphysical connection between the human nature cultivated by Confucianism and the Dao of Heaven (Tian), and (2) the Confucian teaching that the virtues of the truly human or noble person (the jun-zi) are in each case a matter of attaining a balance or mean between extremes of too much and too little that is uniquely appropriate to the situation, and not at all a matter of simply following some rule.

feng shui: The Chinese art of reading or determining the flow of qi-energy over the surface of the earth, and the forces of yin and yang, so as to determine the most beneficial location for houses, graves, temples, and other locations of human activity. Usually classified as geomancy in English.

filial piety [xiao /hsiao]: One of the important virtues cultivated by Confucianism, though not counted among the five cardinal virtues of the jun-zi. It means appropriate respect toward parents and ancestors, involves a readiness to perform the appropriate social/religious rituals expressing that respect, and implies a humility that will never esteem oneself better than one’s elders.

gestalt cosmology: A conception, fundamental to Chinese culture, of the universe as an interdependent, dynamic whole, each of whose parts is in constantly responsive interaction with all other parts and is what it is (i.e., has the meaning and identity it has) in terms of its place within the whole and not apart from that whole.

humaneness [ren /jen]: The first of the five cardinal virtues of the jun-zi, the truly human or noble person, which according to Confucianism is the ideal that all persons should cultivate within themselves. It encompasses within its meaning human-heartedness, a feeling for humanity in others and oneself, sympathy, benevolence, compassion, generosity, a disposition to reach out to identify with the situation of other persons. It is regarded by Confucius as the virtue from which all other virtues derive and what it is that distinguishes a truly civilized person from an uncivilized person.

Lao-zi /Lao Tzu (?604-?446 BCE): The legendary founder of Daoism and the alleged author (at age 160 years) of the Dao De Jing, about whom nothing is known with any historical reliability. He is said to have become immortal through Daoist spiritual practices. He is worshipped as one of the Three Pure Ones, the highest gods summoned by Church or Religious Daoist priests.

li: "Ritual," "ritual propriety," and "a readiness and disposition to act always in socially appropriate ways." This last meaning makes li one of the five cardinal virtues of the jun-zi, the truly human or noble person, which according to Confucianism is the ideal that all persons should cultivate within themselves. The point or purpose of Confucian preoccupation with li is the project of investing all of life with ideal form and inner beauty, both moral and aesthetic, especially those archetypal forms once realied by the ancient sage kings described in the Five Classics. To be devoted to li is to approach each occasion of social interaction as if it were a sacred ritual. In this respect, it is important to realize that Confucius taught that li was one of the three principal "arts of peace" (wen), along with poetry and music, which function to civilize and refine
human nature. A second meaning of li is "Principle," a metaphysical concept developed by the Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi, to refer to the underlying normative pattern of meaning and order in the universe (i.e., the Dao), which it is the object of life to harmonize oneself with.

Mencius [Meng-zi /Meng Tzu] (372-289 BCE): The leading Confucian teacher after Confucius. His writings make up one of the Confucian Four Books.

Neo-Confucianism: A philosophical movement within the Confucian tradition, emerging in the Song/Sung Dynasty (960-1127 CE), to develop a metaphysical account and justification for Confucian views that was equally sophisticated to views found in the competing Buddhist and Daoist traditions of the time. The two most respected thinkers of Neo-Confucianism are Zhu Xi /Chu Hsi (1130-1200 CE) and Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529 CE).

noble person [jun-zi /chun tzu]: A truly human or noble person (literally, "prince son"); which according to Confucianism is the ideal that all persons should conscientiously cultivate within themselves. In other words, each person is born with the potential to become truly human, with the potential to realize the ideal best that he or she can be -- understood especially in terms of the various human relationships in which he or she will come to stand (e.g., child, sibling, parent, subject, ruler).

Philosophical or School Daoism [Dao Jia /Tao Chia]: An expression of Daoism particularly associated with the teachings of the Daoist sages, Lao-zi and Zhuang-zi /Chuang Tzu (369-286 BCE), emphasizing an intuitive at-onement with the Dao in nature, actionless action (wu wei), an anarchist approach to government, an opposition to intellectualism and the mannerisms of civilized life, and an identification with the life of a hermit.

tai ji / t'ai chi chuan: (1) A form of Daoist yoga, involving bodily movement and spiritual meditation designed to attune or harmonize oneself with the Dao, emulating in its movements the graceful emergence of yang and yin and the differentiation of all other things. (2) Tai ji is also the name of the so- called "yin-yang" symbol, standing for the dynamic interaction, opposition, and balance of yin and yang in all things.

The Five Classics: The heart of the Confucian scriptures, which tell of the archetypal patterns of ideal human life as embodied in the sage kings of the past and of the best aspects of the Chinese cultural heritage. They include the Shu Jing (Classic of History), the Shi Jing (Classic of Poetry), the Yi Jing /I Ching (Classic of Changes), the Li Jing (Classic of Rites), and the Chun Qiu (Spring and Autumn Annals). There is said to have once been a sixth classic, the Classic of Music, which did not survive the "burning of the books" in 213 BCE.

The Four Books (in addition to the Five Classics): The remainder of the Confucian scriptures after the Five Classics; they constitute the distinctive Confucian teachings. They include the Analects (Lun Yu) or sayings of Confucius, the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhong Yong), the Great Learning (Ta Hsueh), and the Writings of Mencius (Meng-zi)

qi (also ji /ch'i, ki Japanese): The flow of psychic/spiritual energy throughout the universe and in oneself, a concept especially developed in connection with Daoism, Daoist yoga and hygiene, Daoist inspired martial arts, Chinese medicine, and feng shui.

Ru or Ru Jia: Literally, the "literati" or "intelligentia," or "school of the literati." This is the name for the followers or disciples of Confucius, those who over the centuries have identified with Confucius’ teaching and example and have taken on the vocation of the Confucian scholar devoted to the Five Classics.

wu wei: Literally, "actionless action." The Philosophical Daoist ideal of how to live, wholly grounded in and at-one with the Dao, empowered and invigorated with its power, so that one’s every action is spontaneous yet gracefully at one with all things.

yang: One pole of the basic polarity (or phased opposition) of balanced forces in the universe, or one of two definable phases in a ceaseless cyclical flow or change involving all things. Yang is the active, heavenly force, standing for whatever is light, open, warm, active, aggressive, male.

Yi Jing /I Ching: The Classic of Changes (one of the Five Classics included in the scriptures of Confucianism, but revered by non-Confucians as well), a divination manual organized around 64 hexagrams (each made up of six broken or unbroken lines), one of which is supposed to be selected as an answer to a question by six throws of a set of yarrow stalks. Each hexagram stands for a key component in the complex system of correlations understood to underlie all of the processes of the universe, at least as they pertain to human beings. The Yi Jing provides an explanation and commentary intended to guide the person who consults it in making decisions and in arriving at an appropriate attitude to take.

yin: One pole of the basic polarity (or phased opposition) of balanced forces in the universe, or one of two definable phases in a ceaseless cyclical flow or change involving all things. Yin is the passive, earthly force, standing for whatever is dark, hidden, cool, passive, yielding, and female.

RELIGIONS OF JAPAN TERMS

Amida Japanese: Amitabha Sanskrit, Buddha of infinite light presiding over the Western paradise (Sukavati), the pure Buddha-land associated with the Western direction. Amida’s infinite compassion is said to go out to all sentient beings in all worlds to assist them (as they place their faith and trust in his compassion) in moving towards enlightenment, and specifically in enabling them to be reborn in the Pure Land where there are no obstacles to realizing enlightenment. Amida is the object of devotion in both Shin and Jodo Shin Buddhism. The primary form of devotion to Amida involves the chanted formula, "Namu Amida Butsu" ("Praise to Amida Butsu"), itself called the nembutsu.

Bushido: "The way (do) of the warrior;" the Japanese code of self discipline for warriors (especially the legendary Samurai warriors), based on Zen, Shinto, and Neo-Confucian values.

Butsudo: "The way (do) of the Buddha (Butsu);" the Japanese word for Buddhism, encompassing all lineages of Japanese Buddhism.

Chanoyu: "Tea Ceremony." Chado: "The Way of Tea;" The art and ritual of the Japanese tea
ceremony, based on a fusion of Zen and Shinto values. One of the traditional Geijutsu-do, in which a traditional Japanese art form becomes a means of at-onement with ultimate reality.

Dogen (1200-1253 CE): Historical founder of Soto Zen in Japan, and regarded as one of Japan’s greatest religious thinkers and philosophers. Soto Zen emphasizes "just sitting" (zazen) as the main or primary practice of Zen.

Esai (1141-1215): Historical founder of Rinzai Zen in Japan. Rinzai Zen emphasizes koan meditation as the main or primary practice of Zen.

Honen (1133-1212): Historical founder of Pure Land (Shin) Buddhism in Japan as a separate sect.

Jodo Shin-shu: "True Pure Land School;" sect of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism founded by Shinran. The largest sect of Buddhism in Japan today. Amida is the object of devotion in both Shin and Jodo Shin Buddhism. The primary form of devotion to Amida involves the chanted formula, "Namu Amida Butsu" ("Praise to Amida Butsu"), itself called the nembutsu.

Jodo Shu: "Pure Land School;" sect of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism founded by Honen. Amida is the object of devotion in both Shin and Jodo Shin Buddhism. The primary form of devotion to Amida involves the chanted formula, "Namu Amida Butsu" ("Praise to Amida Butsu"), itself called the nembutsu.

Kami: Spirits or divinities in Shinto, including mythological beings, powerful and awesome aspects of nature, spirits of the dead, and important humans, upon whose good will and cooperation life is believed to depend. The concept itself is ambiguous, refering at times to a single divinity, multiple divinities, all divinities recognized by Shinto, the essence of all kami, and whatever spontaneously evokes wonder and awe.

kannagara: "Giving honor to the kami;" especially through purification, acknowledging one’s dependence upon them, and expressing gratitude and respect. In other words, maintaining an intimate and harmonious rapport (clear communication, mutual awareness, and respect) with the kami.

koan: A riddle or saying used in Rinzai Zen meditation, designed to frustrate attempting to understand things from an ego-centric perspective and shift those who seek to solve them through meditation to the ego-less perspective of their Buddha nature.

Kukai (773-835): Great Japanese Buddhist thinker, who contributed in many significant ways to the formation of Japanese culture and Japanese Buddhism generally, and who founded the Shingon lineage of Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism in Japan (transmitting the Chinese Chen yen lineage). He is particularly revered for his promotion of traditional art forms as both expressions of Buddhist values and themselves means of meditational practice. Kukai is also known as Kobo Daishi.

misogi: Shinto ritual of purification, usually involving standing under a cold waterfall and allowing all one’s inner psychological and spiritual impurities to be washed away, leaving one with "a bright pure heart." It recalls the mythological event when Izanagi, the male of the primal kami couple, visited his spouse Izanami (who had died in childbirth) in the underworld amid great pollution and had to purify himself afterward. Purification rituals are found throughout Shinto in a variety of modes besides that of misogi.

Mt. Hiei: Sacred mountain in Kyoto on which is located the principal buildings of the Tendai lineage of Japanese Buddhism. Founded by Saicho toward the end of the eighth century CE (transmitting the Tien-tai lineage in China), it became center from which virtually all subsequent forms of Japanese Buddhism began. (I.e., their leaders virtually all began as Tendai monks, because Tendai has been the primary center for the serious study of Buddhism since its founding.)

Nichiren (1222-1282): Great Buddhist leader and founder of Nichiren Shoshu, an exclusive sect of Buddhism single-mindedly based upon the Lotus Sutra, which he taught was the highest and truest teaching of the Buddha. Among his novel teachings was his conviction that personal, communal, and national prosperity would follow from meditation on the superior teachings of the Lotus Sutra.

Nichiren Shoshu: The lineage of Buddhism founded by Nichiren (of which there are now several sects), focused upon meditation upon the Lotus Sutra. Its worship focuses on a copy of a scroll painted by Nichiren (the Gohonzon) celebrating the teachings of the Lotus Sutra and utilizes the traditional chant taught by Nichiren, "Namu myoho rengekyo" ("Praise to the wondrous truth of the Lotus Sutra"), called the Daimoku.

Non-sectarian Shinto: Traditional Shinto beliefs and practices, particularly associated with Shrine (jinja) worship, festivals (matsuri), and folk religious practices. These are called "Non-sectarian Shinto" to distinguish them from Nationalist or State Shinto on the one hand and Sectarian Shinto movements on the other.

Rinzai Zen: The "Sudden Enlightenment" lineage of Japanese Zen founded by Eisai in the 12th century CE, transmitting the Lin-ji or Southern lineage of Chan Buddhism in China. It emphasizes meditation on koans, riddles that are believed to be solvable only by the enlightened Buddha nature deep within, whose solution is believed to bring about sudden and intuitive breakthroughs (satori or kensho) on the way to enlightenment.

Sectarian Shinto: A group of heterogenous (mutually very different) religious sects, identifying
themselves in some way with Shinto, first identified as such at the end of WWII but now encompassing many more than the 13 sects identified at that time. Unlike Non-sectarian Shinto, they are characterized by large congregations that meet regularly for religous services, incorporate elaborate rituals and modern sermons, and sometimes promote their beliefs and practices with missionary fervor.

Shingon: A form of Japanese Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism founded by Kukai, transmitting the Chen yen lineage of Chinese Vajrayana, but transforming it considerably in the process. It makes use of elaborate rituals and some shamanic practices and particularly encourages traditional art forms as both expressions of Buddhist values and themselves means of meditational practice.

Shinran (1173-1262): Great religious thinker and founder of Jodo Shinshu, the True Pure Land Buddhist sect of Japan. Though Shinran began as a Tendai monk and then a disciple of Honen, Shinran underwent a profound religious conversion, on the basis of which he developed his distinctive teaching of relying on faith alone in the compassion and grace of Amida Buddha for salvation, even for great sinners.

Shinto [= Kami-no-michi]: The Chinese name given to the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan by Buddhist monks in the sixth century CE (meaning the way [to or do] of good spirits [shen]). It later came to be called in Japanese, Kami-no-michi, "the way of the kami."

shrine [jinja]: Sacred place because of what is believed to be the presence of a kami. It usually has appropriate buildings where a symbol of the kami may be housed (often there is no symbol, and almost never an image) and where worshipppers can consult priests. At larger shrines there is a place for water purification and a bell to ring to announce one’s presence to the kami.

Shugendo: "The way (do) of mastering (shu) extraordinary religious power (gen)." A tradition of shamanistic religious practice combining Folk Shinto, Vajrayana Buddhism, and Taoist yogic practice, tracing its origin to a legend-surrounded shaman, En-no-Gyoja, of the Nara Period (710-794). It teaches a way that leads to magio-religious power through ascetic practices conducted upon certain mountains throughout Japan. It practices spirit possession, exorcism, and faith-healing, and its leaders regarded as living kami or living Buddhas. Accomplished followers of this way are called yamabushi ("wandering mountain ascetics").

Soka Gakkai: Largest of the so-called New Religions of Japan to emerge since WWII, stemming from Nichiren Shoshu, and now an international, largely lay Buddhist movement no longer identified so closely with the prosperity and well being of Japan as is its parent faith. It is an aggressive missionary oriented movement teaching that individual, community, and national well being will come from meditation on the wondrous teachings of the Lotus Sutra.

Soto Zen: The "Gradual Enlightenment" lineage of Japanese Zen founded by Dogen in the 13th century CE, transmitting the Cao-dong or Northern lineage of Chan Buddhism in China. In contrast with koan meditation and other devices used by Rinzai Zen to bring about sudden breakthroughs on the way of enlightenment, Soto emphasizes "just sitting" (zazen), thereby emptying the mind and seeing directly into one’s own nature. This is believed to realize the pure mind of Buddhahood and to experience awakening, gradually. Thus no distinction is drawn between the goal and the means to the goal.

State Shinto: An attempt by the Japanese national government (and several large business interests) between 1868 and 1945 to promote an institutional nation-wide form of Shinto as the national religion of Japan, or rather to use Shinto to inspire nationalism and secure absolute political and military control. During this time, other religions were able to maintain a presence in Japan only by accepting government views on State Shinto, including beliefs in a land divinely created, in a succession of emperors descended in an unbroken line from the Sun Goddess (Kami Amaterasu) (regarded as her living incarnation and therefore deserving of worship), and in the Japanese people people as being of divine origin and possibly destined to rule the world. State
Shinto was disestablished at the end of the war by the Allied Commander, rites performed by the imperial family were demoted to private religoius ceremonies, and all religions were placed on an equal footing, entitled to equal freedom and protection.

Tendai: Influential Mahayana Buddhist lineage founded by Saicho (767-822), transmitting the Tien-tai Chinese lineage. It represents one of the most inclusive of Japanese Buddhist sects, recognizing the legitimacy and role of virtually all other forms and lineages, With its headquarters at Mt. Hiei in Kyoto and its being the main center of serious Buddhist study and scholarship in Japan, it has exercised a powerful influence over all other forms of Japanese Buddhism through most of Japanese history.

yamabushi: "Wandering mountain ascetics;" persons who seriously seek to follow and practice the shamanistic Shinto-Buddhist path known as Shugendo.

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